Every day, adults conduct cost-benefit analyses in some form for decisions large and small, economic and personal: Bring a lunch or go out? Buy or rent? Remain single or start a family? All are balances of risk and reward.

According to psychologists, infants weigh risks and rewards, too, but appear to boil down their decision-making to this: Do I want to?

But according to published in the August print issue of the journal Cognition, it turns out that the decision-making process for older infants and toddlers is more nuanced than that. According to 91探花 psychology professor and lead author , 18-month-olds can make choices based on how much effort they want to expend, or on whether they like the people involved. That kind of cost-benefit analysis, she said, can guide the development of early pro-social behavior, like helping and sharing.

鈥淏y the middle of the second year of life, infants are making very sophisticated social decisions,鈥� Sommerville said. 鈥淲e tend to think of situations in which infants help or want to help others as either cute and endearing, or as a result of their being finely tuned to the needs of others. But they also are weighing the costs of their actions against the perceived benefits.鈥�

Infants鈥� decision-making is, of course, something to be evaluated based on behavior, not interviews. Researchers in this study focused on the ways these relatively new walkers and talkers could demonstrate interest and effort.

Sommerville and her colleagues examined how 160 toddlers decided whether to help an adult under two separate conditions. All the children were about 18 months of age.

In the first scenario, a researcher introduced a child to five vinyl blocks, each a different color and weight 鈥� from a quarter-pound to 5 pounds 鈥� which the child would discover upon lifting it. A facilitator would then clean up the blocks, appearing to inadvertently leave a block behind. For some children, the randomly assigned 鈥渇orgotten鈥� block was the lightest of the blocks, while for others it was the heaviest that the child was able to lift. As the researcher proceeded to build a block tower on the other side of the room, she would ask the child for the missing block. Of those toddlers with the light, 鈥渓ow-effort鈥� block, 67 percent carried it to the researcher, while 38 percent of the children with the heavy, 鈥渉igh-effort鈥� block carried it over.

鈥淭hese findings were of great interest because they show that infants decide whether to help an adult based on how much effort it requires of them. This required them to remember information from an earlier part of the study (how heavy the block was) and to anticipate the impact that information would have on their own behavior (how hard it would be to carry it across the room). So infants are much better at remembering and projecting the amount of effort an action requires, and using that information to make social decisions, than we previously imagined鈥�

The second 鈥渉elp鈥� scenario focused on intrinsic motivation 鈥� a situation that didn鈥檛 involve an immediate reward, but instead set up a potential social benefit: a person whom the child could see as 鈥渓ike鈥� them. Through engagement with toys, the experiment established whether a child and adult would share an interest in the same toy (the 鈥渟hared preference鈥� condition), or would be interested in separate toys (the 鈥渙pposite preference鈥� condition). Then the adult would move to the other side of the room and build a block tower, leaving a 4-pound block behind. Over two trials of this experiment with different participants, 75 percent of toddlers in the shared-preference condition carried the block over and helped the adult, while only 57 percent of toddlers in the opposite-preference condition brought the block to the adult.

Searching for common ground is typical human social behavior, Sommerville said. Adults tend to spend time with people who share the same likes and values 鈥� known in psychology circles as establishing one鈥檚 own 鈥渋n-group.鈥�

鈥淚n child development, there are benefits to interacting with in-group members beyond mere liking,鈥� she said. 鈥淚n-group members are more likely to be able to teach you something culturally relevant, like what an object is called or how it works. So a bias to interact with others who are like you not only has immediate positive benefits, but is also beneficial down the road.鈥�

As the field of developmental psychology has shifted to focus more on how behaviors evolve rather than how they mark specific life stages, cost-benefit analysis is ripe for study, Somerville said.

鈥淭hese findings suggest that infants are able to weigh multiple factors in deciding whether or not to help someone. This is something that adults and older children do: A decision to lend someone money might be a product of both how much money they need 鈥� is it $5 or $500? 鈥� and how close we are to them. We might be willing to lend $5 but not $500 to a neighbor, while we are willing to lend $500 to a close friend or family member,鈥� Sommerville said. 鈥淥ur results suggest that infants鈥� pro-social behavior is more complex than previously thought, and isn鈥檛 driven by a single factor.鈥�

Sommerville鈥檚 team is currently exploring the impact of parental praise on motivation, and, in a separate study, whether much younger infants 鈥� around 6 months of age 鈥� will exert more effort for an interesting toy than for a boring one.

鈥淚f we are correct, these findings would suggest that cost-benefit analyses play a central role in infants鈥� decision-making even just as they are able to produce actions,鈥� she said.

The study鈥檚 co-authors were postdoctoral researcher , graduate student Elizabeth Enright and lab manager Rachel Horton, all of the 91探花Department of Psychology鈥檚 , as well as Miranda Sitch and Susanne Kirchner-Adelhardt, who helped conduct the research while at the UW.

The study was funded by the John Templeton Foundation and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

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For more information, contact Sommerville at 206-616-3090 or sommej@uw.edu.

Grant number: 1R01HD076949-01

If you parent a child, teach a child, or heck, even know a child, chances are you鈥檝e heard that grit will make that young person a happier and more successful adult.

Grit, the combination of pluck and perseverance has become the theme of articles and books, and is instilled just as much as it鈥檚 gained through experience.

But where does it come from?

Gauging persistence in infants may be a first step, 91探花 researchers say. Too young to demonstrate grit, babies nevertheless show varying levels of effort to communicate their needs, capture another person鈥檚 attention, reach for food and toys, and move from one place to another.

Further study of why infants persist, and to what end, may shed new light on how they learn and what the future yields.

鈥淲hether a baby persists depends on a number of different factors,鈥� said Kelsey Lucca, a postdoctoral researcher in the Early Childhood Cognition Lab in the 91探花Department of Psychology. 鈥淲e see individual differences in persistence as early as 6 months of age, so it鈥檚 important to find out what鈥檚 shaping those differences.鈥�

Lucca and psychology professor Jessica Sommerville wrote an article, published Aug. 16 in Trends in Cognitive Science, as a call to action to others in the field. Studying persistence can inform what we know about how infants make decisions and identify what they care about, as well as how behavior early in life affects academic performance, job status and even relationship success, the authors write.

There鈥檚 plenty of research on grit in older children and teens, Sommerville pointed out. But 鈥済rit鈥� requires more than persistence; it encompasses the ability to identify and work toward long-term goals 鈥� knowledge that is well beyond infancy. Sommerville and Lucca argue that the more scientists examine infant behavior such as persistence, the more can be learned about the factors that lead to persistence in infancy and early childhood, the range of outcomes that persistence predicts, and the parenting or educational interventions that can be designed to promote persistence from an early age.

Sommerville studies cognition in infants and young children, with a focus on social and moral development. Her 2017 , for example, examined how 17-month-olds perceive social dominance; other recent research looked at how 18-month-olds will engage in a toddler-esque form of cost-benefit analysis in deciding whether to help an adult. She and Lucca are currently evaluating how young children respond to parental praise.

Learning about infant behavior such as persistence has the potential to impact the adults children become, Sommerville said.

“Studying infants’ persistence can show us what infants and children understand about themselves and how their abilities and experiences compare to other people, like parents and siblings,鈥� Sommerville said. 鈥淚nfants have a much more significant sense of their abilities than previously imagined, and they are able to use this understanding to decide when and how to exert effort on a range of everyday problems. This sensitivity is central to learning because it helps infants tune into social information that is most relevant to them and their current experiences.”